Nepal floods: What happened, what caused them and who is missing?

On Wednesday, part of a glacier collapsed high in the Himalayas, triggering catastrophic flooding along the Nepal-Tibet border.

At least ۱۶۰ people have been confirmed dead overall, while nearly ۱,۵۰۰ people are missing across Nepal and China’s Tibet, including at least ۸۰۰ foreign nationals.

In Nepal, ۸۲۶ people are missing, including almost ۶۰۰ foreigners, according to police and tourism officials. Across the border, Chinese state media reported that ۵۵۸ people were missing in Tibet’s Gyirong County, including ۲۶۰ foreign nationals.

Here is what we know about what triggered the disaster, where the floods struck, and the risks facing the rapidly warming Himalayan region.

What happened in Nepal?

At about ۸:۴۰am local time (۰۲:۵۵ GMT) on Wednesday, flash floods and mudslides swept through mountainous areas along the Nepal-Tibet border, killing at least ۱۵۷ people in Nepal and three in Tibet and leaving hundreds missing.

A massive flood of water, mud and rocks swept through the Lhende Khola river valley, engulfing villages and destroying homes and critical infrastructure. At least ۱۹ bridges and about ۴۰km (۲۵ miles) of roads were washed away.

Nepalese soldiers and rescue teams have been deployed with helicopters, drones and search dogs, but high river levels, damaged roads and mud have complicated efforts to reach some of the worst-hit areas.

Across the border in Tibet, deep sediment has also delayed Chinese rescue teams trying to reach the border zone.

What triggered the mudslide and flash floods?

Officials were caught off-guard by the floods on Wednesday because it was not raining, according to local news editors.

The disaster appears to have begun high in the Himalayas, where part of a glacier had collapsed, triggering a chain of events that caused a powerful surge of water and debris downstream.

Satellite imagery showed that a substantial section of the lower end of the glacier broke away at an elevation of about ۵,۲۰۰ metres (۱۷,۰۰۰ feet), plunging about ۱,۲۰۰ metres (۳,۹۰۰ ft) onto the valley floor, gathering rock and sediment as it fell.

The resulting ice-rock avalanche struck the Lhende River in Tibet, about ۲۰km (۱۲ miles) northeast of the Nepal-China border crossing. Debris temporarily blocked the river before the natural dam gave way, releasing a powerful flood downstream.

Early reports suggested that a magnitude ۴.۴ earthquake had triggered the collapse. However, the United States Geological Survey (USGS) later revised its assessment, saying that the seismic signal had been generated by the landslide itself rather than an earthquake.

The landslide eventually registered as a magnitude ۵.۲ seismic event.

Where exactly did the floods happen?

The disaster struck the mountainous Nepal-Tibet border region, with some of the worst damage in Nepal’s Rasuwa district, immediately south of the Chinese border.

The initial surge entered the Lhende Khola, which feeds into the Bhote Koshi and then the Trishuli River, carrying floodwaters south through Nepal. Water levels in the Trishuli reportedly rose by as much as ۹ metres (۲۷ ft) in just ۳۰ minutes.

In the Rasuwa district, Timure and Syapru Besi were among the affected settlements. Further downstream, flooding reached parts of Nepal’s Nuwakot and Dhading districts, damaging homes, roads and other infrastructure.

Across the border in Tibet, mud and debris hit Gyirong Port in the Shigatse region.

The Trishuli eventually joins the Narayani River, which crosses into India’s Bihar state, where it is known as the Gandak River.

What do we know about the victims?

At least ۱۶۰ people have been confirmed dead, while hundreds more remain missing on both sides of the Nepal-Tibet border.

• Nepal: Police have recovered at least ۱۵۷ bodies.
• Tibet: Authorities have reported at least three deaths in Gyirong County, where ۲۶۵ people remain missing.

“My brother-in-law had a liquor store here. I got a call from him this morning, and they were crying and said their entire house had been swept away,” Raju Bhadel, a local businessman in Nepal, told Al Jazeera.

Manoj Mishra, a teacher, described seeing vehicles and people being carried away by the floodwaters in Nepal. “I saw around nine trucks being swept away by the floods, including people. It’s a heartbreaking incident,” he said.

Who is missing?

The Prime Minister’s Office in Nepal said that ۴۸۴ people, including ۳۹۱ foreign tourists and ۹۳ Nepalis, were reported missing. However, these numbers are expected to increase as more details come in and as the water recedes, when rescue officials will be able to access some of the worst affected areas.

Many of the foreign nationals missing are pilgrims who had been travelling towards Mount Kailash in Tibet, a sacred site for Hindus. Others were trekking around Gosaikunda Lake in Nepal’s Rasuwa district during the Janai Purnima festival, an occasion when sisters tie a thread on their brothers’ wrists to mark their special bond.

According to authorities on Wednesday, those unaccounted for included people from:

• India: More than ۱۳۰ people
• Nepal: ۹۳
• United States: ۴۷
• Australia: ۳۴
• United Kingdom: ۳۳
• Canada: ۲۴
• Malaysia: At least ۱۱
• South Korea: At least eight
• Russia: Four
• South Africa: Four
• Other countries: Smaller numbers of people from South Korea, the Netherlands and Portugal were also reported missing.

The missing include South Korean workers who were working at hydropower project sites damaged by the floods.

Dozens of Nepalese security personnel involved in the response were also out of contact, including police and army personnel.

The injured and rescued

At least ۶۵ people were being treated for injuries in local hospitals and in Kathmandu.

Survivors from the badly affected Rasuwa district were evacuated by military helicopter, with some taken to hospitals in Kathmandu, including the National Trauma Centre and Bir Hospital.

How are international organisations and leaders responding to the crisis?

Countries and international organisations have offered emergency assistance, funding and technical support as rescue operations continue in Nepal and Tibet.

Humanitarian and financial aid

India has sent a rescue aircraft carrying about ۱۰ tonnes of emergency supplies to Nepal, including temporary shelters, blankets, hygiene kits, solar lamps and medicines.

Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi spoke with Nepalese Prime Minister Balendra Shah and pledged India’s support.

The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) has released ۱ million Swiss francs ($۱.۲m) in emergency funding to support the Nepal Red Cross Society’s relief operations and damage assessments.

International coordination and satellite support

The United Nations has deployed personnel in Nepal to support government-led relief efforts, while its office in China has said it is ready to assist rescue operations in Tibet.

UN Secretary-General Antonio Guterres expressed his condolences to those affected and said the organisation stood in solidarity with communities hit by the disaster.

The European Union has activated its Copernicus Emergency Management Service, which uses satellite imagery to map disaster zones and provide information that can help authorities assess damage and coordinate rescue operations.

Search-and-rescue efforts

South Korea has established a government task force after several South Korean nationals working at a hydropower project were reported missing. Seoul said it planned to send a rapid-response team involving government, fire and police personnel to Nepal to assist with the search.

The United States and Canada have also said they are carefully monitoring the situation as authorities try to account for their nationals reported missing in the region.

On the Chinese side, President Xi Jinping ordered an “all-out” search-and-rescue operation for people missing in Tibet and called for efforts to prevent further disasters.

What role did climate change play in this disaster?

Scientists are still investigating what triggered the glacier collapse, and it is too early to determine how much climate change contributed to this specific event.

However, the disaster comes against a backdrop of rapid warming and glacial loss across the Himalayas. Glaciers across the Hindu Kush Himalaya mountain range – which spans Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal and Pakistan – lost ice ۶۵ percent faster between ۲۰۱۱ and ۲۰۲۰ than during the previous decade. Nepal’s glaciers have lost close to one-third of their ice volume in roughly three decades.

As glaciers retreat, mountain slopes can become increasingly unstable, and meltwater can accumulate in or around glaciers, increasing the potential for sudden floods.

Satellite observations showed unusually warm conditions around the affected glacier before the collapse, with snow cover diminishing considerably and exposing more bare ice.

Researchers are investigating whether melting contributed to the glacier’s instability, but a direct link between climate change and this week’s collapse has not been established.

What is the situation now?

Police and military personnel are conducting rescue efforts, although officials have said rescue helicopters will ⁠not be able to land in some of the affected areas until the waters recede. Much of the area is without electricity, and flood sediment is posing a challenge.

People living in low-lying ⁠regions have been moved to safer places, and those along the river have been advised to remain alert.